River Rapids Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series Mechanics of Composite and Multi-functional Materials, Volume 7 Carter Ralph Meredith Silberstein Piyush R. Thakre Raman Singh Proceedings of the 2015 Annual Conference on Experimental and Applied Mechanics River Publishers
Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series Series Editor Kristin B. Zimmerman, Ph.D. Society for Experimental Mechanics Bethel, CT, USA
River Publishers Carter Ralph • Meredith Silberstein • Piyush R. Thakre • Raman Singh Editors Mechanics of Composite and Multifunctional Materials, Volume 7 Proceedings of the 2015 Annual Conference on Experimental and Applied Mechanics
Published, sold and distributed by: River Publishers Broagervej 10 9260 Gistrup Denmark www.riverpublishers.com ISBN 978-87-7004-921-4 (eBook) Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics An imprint of River Publishers © The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2016 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, or reproduction in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Preface Mechanics of Composite and Multifunctional Materials represents the one of nine volumes of technical papers presented at the 2015 SEM Annual Conference and Exposition on Experimental and Applied Mechanics organized by the Society for Experimental Mechanics and held in Costa Mesa, CA, June 8–11, 2015. The complete Proceedings also includes volumes on the following: Dynamic Behavior of Materials; Challenges in Mechanics of Time-Dependent Materials; Advancement of Optical Methods in Experimental Mechanics; Experimental and Applied Mechanics; MEMS and Nanotechnology; Mechanics of Biological Systems and Materials; Fracture, Fatigue, Failure and Damage Evolution; and Residual Stress, Thermomechanics and Infrared Imaging, Hybrid Techniques and Inverse Problems. This volume presents early findings from experimental and computational investigations on an important area within Composite, Hybrid, and Multifunctional Materials. Composites are increasingly the material of choice for a wide range of applications from sporting equipment to aerospace vehicles. This increase has been fueled by increases in material options, greater understanding of material behaviors, novel design solutions, and improved manufacturing techniques. The broad range of uses and challenges requires a multidisciplinary approach between mechanical, chemical, and physical researchers to continue the rapid rate of advancement. New materials are being developed from natural sources or from biological inspiration, leading to composites with unique properties and more sustainable sources. Existing materials used in new and critical applications require a deeper understanding of their behaviors and failure mechanisms on multiple scales. In addition, the unique properties of composites present many challenges in manufacturing and in joining them with other materials. Testing needs to be performed on these materials to characterize their properties, and new test methods and technologies must be developed in order to perform these studies and to evaluate parts during manufacture and use. Birmingham, Alabama, USA Carter Ralph Ithaca, New York, USA Meredith Silberstein Midland, Michigan, USA Piyush R. Thakre Tulsa, Oklahoma, USA Raman Singh v
Contents 1 Mechanics of Multifunctional Wings with Solar Cells for Robotic Birds .......................... 1 Ariel Perez-Rosado, Satyandra K. Gupta, and Hugh A. Bruck 2 Optimization of Magnetic and Electrical Properties of New Aluminium Matrix Composite Reinforced with Magnetic Nano Iron Oxide (Fe3O4) ......................................... 11 L.-M.-P. Ferreira, E. Bayraktar, M.-H. Robert, and I. Miskioglu 3 Manufacturing and Characterization of Anisotropic Membranes for Micro Air Vehicles ............ 19 Josh Wilcox, N. Brent Osterberg, Roberto Albertani, Mattia Alioli, Marco Morandini, and Pierangelo Masarati 4 Compliant Artificial Skins to Enable Robotic Sensing and Training by Touch..................... 31 Hugh A. Bruck, Elisabeth Smela, Miao Yu, James Tigue, Oleg Popkov, Gokhan Ocel, and Ying Chen 5 Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy for Structural Health Monitoring........................... 41 Geoffrey A. Slipher, Robert A. Haynes, and Jaret C. Riddick 6 Soliton-based Sensor/Actuator for Delamination and Weak Bond Detection in Laminated Composites ............................................................. 49 Eunho Kim, Taru Singhal, Brian Chang, Yong Han Noel Kim, and Jinkyu Yang 7 In Pursuit of Bio-inspired Triboluminescent Multifunctional Composites ......................... 55 David O. Olawale, Jin Yan, Divyesh H. Bhakta, Donovan Carey, Tarik J. Dickens, and Okenwa I. Okoli 8 Passive-Only Defect Detection and Imaging in Composites Using Diffuse Fields .................... 67 Jeffery D. Tippmann and Francesco Lanza di Scalea 9 Buckypaper-Cored Novel Photovoltaic Sensors for In-Situ Structural Health Monitoring of Composite Materials Using Hybrid Quantum Dots ........................................ 73 Jin Yan, Deborah E. Daramola, Julian M. Antolinez, Nnamdi Okoli, Tarik J. Dickens, and Okenwa I. Okoli 10 Viscoelasticity of Glass-Forming Materials: What About Inorganic Sealing Glasses?................ 81 Robert S. Chambers, Mark E. Stavig, and Rajan Tandon 11 Unified Creep Plasticity Damage (UCPD) Model for Rigid Polyurethane Foams ................... 89 Michael K. Neilsen, Wei-Yang Lu, William M. Scherzinger, Terry D. Hinnerichs, and Chi S. Lo 12 Mechanical Behavior Characterization of Polyurethane Used in Bend Stiffener.................... 99 G.L. Oliveira, A.G. Ariza, M. Caire, M.F. Costa, and M.A. Vaz 13 Effect of Pressure on Damping Properties of Granular Polymeric Materials ...................... 109 M. Bek, A. Oseli, I. Saprunov, N. Holecˇek, B.S. von Bernstorff, and I. Emri 14 Wideband Material Characterization of Viscoelastic Materials ................................ 117 Hu¨seyinG€okmen Aksoy vii
15 On the Mechanical Response of Polymer Fiber Composites Reinforced with Nanoparticles .................................................................. 125 Addis Tessema, William Mitchell, Behrad Koohbor, Suraj Ravindran, Addis Kidane, and Michel Van Tooren 16 Design of Al-Nb2Al Composites Through Powder Metallurgy.................................. 131 E. Bayraktar, M.-H. Robert, and I. Miskioglu 17 Influence of Heat Treatments on Microstructure and Mechanical Behaviour of Compressible Al Matrix, Low Density Composites ........................................ 141 M.H. Robert, E.M. Nascimento, and E. Bayraktar 18 Large Deformation of Particle-Filled Rubber Composites .................................... 149 Toshio Nakamura and Marc Leonard 19 Advanced Structured Composites as Novel Phononic Crystals and Acoustic Metamaterials ........... 155 Kathryn H. Matlack, Sebastian Kr€odel, Anton Bauhofer, and Chiara Daraio 20 Low-Cost Production of Epoxy Matrix Composites Reinforced with Scarp Rubber, Boron, Glass Bubbles and Alumina...................................................... 163 E. Bayraktar, I. Miskioglu, and D. Zaimova 21 Prediction of Flexural Properties of Coir Polyester Composites by ANN......................... 173 G.L. Easwara Prasad, B.S. Keerthi Gowda, and R. Velmurugan 22 Filler-Reinforced Poly(Glycolic Acid) for Degradable Frac Balls Under High-Pressure Operation........................................................ 181 Shinya Takahashi, Masayuki Okura, Takuma Kobayashi, Hikaru Saijo, and Takeo Takahashi 23 Characteristics of Elastomeric Composites Reinforced with Carbon Black and Epoxy............... 191 D. Zaimova, E. Bayraktar, and I. Miskioglu 24 Mechanical Properties of Extensively Recycled High Density Polyethylene....................... 203 P. Oblak, J. Gonzalez-Gutierrez, B. Zupancˇicˇ, A. Aulova, and I. Emri 25 Mechanical Characterization and Preliminary Modeling of PEEK.............................. 209 Wenlong Li, Eric N. Brown, Philip J. Rae, George Gazonas, and Mehrdad Negahban 26 Characterization of the Nonlinear Elastic Behavior of Chinchilla Tympanic Membrane Using Micro-fringe Projection.......................................................... 219 Junfeng Liang, Huiyang Luo, Don Nakmali, Rong Zhu Gan, and Hongbing Lu 27 Compression of Silicone Foams ......................................................... 225 Wei-Yang Lu 28 Voltage Control of Single Magnetic Domain Nanoscale Heterostructure, Analysis and Experiments ............................................................. 231 Scott M. Keller, Cheng-Yen Liang, and Gregory P. Carman 29 Active Damping in Polymer-Based Nanocomposites ......................................... 235 Frank Gardea, Dimitris Lagoudas, and Mohammad Naraghi 30 MWCNT and CNF Cementitious Nanocomposites for Enhanced Strength and Toughness ............ 241 P.A. Danoglidis, M.G. Falara, M.K. Katotriotou, M.S. Konsta-Gdoutos, and E.E. Gdoutos 31 Small Scale Thermomechanics in Si with an Account of Surface Stress Measurements .............. 247 Yang Zhang, Ming Gan, and Vikas Tomar 32 Magnetorheological Elastomers: Experimental and Modeling Aspects ........................... 251 Laurence Bodelot, Tobias P€ossinger, Kostas Danas, Nicolas Triantafyllidis, and Christian Bolzmacher 33 Failure Criteria of Composite Materials Under Static and Dynamic Loading...................... 257 I.M. Daniel viii Contents
34 A Theory of Multi-Constituent Finitely-Deforming Composite Materials Subject to Thermochemical Changes with Damage................................................ 269 R.B. Hall 35 Pressurized In-Situ Dynamic Mechanical Thermal Analysis Method for Oilfield Polymers and Composites ............................................................. 277 Yusheng Yuan and Daniel Sequera 36 HPHT Hot-Wet Resistance of Reinforcement Fibers and Fiber-Resin Interface of Advanced Composite Materials ....................................................... 291 Yusheng Yuan, Jiaxiang (Jason) Ren, and Christopher Campo 37 Laboratory Testing on Composites to Replicate Oil and Gas Service............................ 321 Sabine Munch, Glyn Morgan, Morris Roseman, and Barry Thomson 38 Measurement of Thermal Deformation of CFRP Under Rapid Heating.......................... 329 J. Koyanagi, Y. Fukuda, K. Hirai, A. Yoshimura, T. Aoki, T. Ogasawara, and S. Yoneyama 39 Performance of Patch and Full-Encirclement Bonded Composite Repairs ........................ 337 C.W. Burnworth and M.W. Keller 40 Meso-Scale Deformation Behavior of Polymer Bonded Energetic Material Under Quasi-Static Compression....................................................... 345 Suraj Ravindran and Addis Kidane 41 Subsidence Modeling and Analysis for Sand Shear Strength Parameter Testing................... 351 Jiliang Li and Jinyuan Zhai 42 Determining the Shear Relaxation Modulus and Constitutive Models for Polyurea and Polyurea-Based Composite Materials from Dynamic Mechanical Testing Data................. 363 Zhanzhan Jia, Alireza V. Amirkhizi, Wiroj Nantasetphong, and Sia Nemat-Nasser 43 Long Term Stability of UHMWPE Fibers ................................................. 369 Amanda L. Forster, Joannie Chin, Jyun-Siang Peng, Kai-li Kang, Kirk Rice, and Mohamad Al-Sheikhly 44 Age Deformation After Stamping of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Polycarbonate Laminates ............ 377 Masayuki Nakada, Hiroaki Ozaki, and Yasushi Miyano 45 Incremental Formulation for Coupled Viscoelasticity and Hydrolock Effect in Softwood............. 387 Sung-Lam Nguyen, Omar Saifouni, and Jean-Franc¸ois Destrebecq 46 Accelerated Creep Testing of CFRP with the Stepped Isostress Method.......................... 397 J.D. Tanks, K.E. Rader, and S.R. Sharp 47 Coupon-Based Qualification for the Fatigue of Composite Repairs of Pressure Equipment ........... 405 Ibrahim A. Alnaser and Michael W. Keller 48 Effect of a Composite Coupler on Automotive Windshield Wiper System Chatter.................. 411 Yaomin Dong 49 Through Process Modeling Approach: Effect of Microstructure on Mechanical Properties of Fiber Reinforced Composites ................................................ 421 Mouna Zaidani, Mohammad Atif Omar, and S. Kumar 50 Molding Strain of Glass Fibers of Model GFRP............................................ 431 Tatsuro Kosaka, Takahiro Horiuchi, and Kazuhiro Kusukawa 51 Effect of Molding Conditions on Process-Induced Deformation of Asymmetric FRP Laminates ....... 439 Taishi Senoh, Tatsuro Kosaka, Takahiro Horiuchi, and Kazuhiro Kusukawa Contents ix
52 Simulation of High Rate Failure Mechanisms in Composites During Quasi-static Testing.................................................................. 445 Mark Pankow and Brandon A. McWilliams 53 Meso-scale Deformation Mechanisms of Polymer Bonded Energetic Materials Under Dynamic Loading.............................................................. 451 Suraj Ravindran, Addis Tessema, Addis Kidane, and Michael A. Sutton 54 High Strain Rate Tensile Behavior of Fiber Metal Laminates .................................. 457 Ankush Sharma and Venkitanarayanan Parameswaran 55 Compressive Response of Cellular Core Filled with Micro-Sphere Embedded Aluminum............ 463 Kanti Lal Solanki, Venkitanarayanan Parameswaran, and Jim Sorensen Erratum.............................................................................. E1 x Contents
Chapter 1 Mechanics of Multifunctional Wings with Solar Cells for Robotic Birds Ariel Perez-Rosado, Satyandra K. Gupta, and Hugh A. Bruck Abstract Inspired by nature, Flapping Wing Aerial Vehicles (FWAVs), also known as Robotic Birds, use flexible compliant wings that deform while flapping to generate the aerodynamic forces necessary for flight. These vehicles sustain short flights due to the limited payload for on-board energy storage. Using flexible solar cells, energy can be harvested during flight to extend the flight of the FWAV. By integrating flexible solar cells into the wing structure of the FWAV, more electrical power is produced but at a cost. The solar cells increase the overall mass of the vehicle while also altering the deformation of the wing. These changes to the wing ultimately have an effect on the performance of the FWAV. In this paper, three different wing designs were designed, built and tested. The Robo Raven platform was used for each wing design. The first design was the original wing design without solar cells. The second design hosted 12 solar modules integrated into the wings. The final design was composed of 22 solar modules integrated into the wings. The aerodynamic forces generated by each wing design were observed in a wind tunnel while the FWAV was attached to a six DOF load cell. To understand how the wings changed with respect to deformation each wing was also observed in the wind tunnel 3D using Digital Image Correlation (DIC). The results from DIC demonstrated a correlation between the lift and thrust forces produced by the wings and the biaxial and shear strains observed on the wings surface respectively. By observing the power output form the solar cells while flapping, the corresponding wave form correlated well to the thrust force measurements. This allows th solar cells to also behave as sensors while flying. The resulting platform, Robo Raven III, is the first ornithopter to fly while using energy harvested from solar cells. Keywords Flexible solar cells • Flapping wing air vehicles • Wing deformations • Aerodynamic force sensing 1.1 Introduction Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are emerging as an important tool in a wide variety of defense and civilian applications [1–3]. Flapping Wing Aerial Vehicles (FWAVs) have the potential to combine the positive aspects of both fixed-wing and rotary flight, while eliminating many of the negative aspects. Inspiration for flapping has been derived from bats, insects, and birds that’s have been observed in flight for all of human history. Using this inspiration, many platforms that use a flapping motion to maintain flight have been designed, built, and modeled [2–25]. Though the design and size of each of these designs may differ, the wings are all made of stiff lightweight rods that support a thin membrane. More recently, a highly maneuverable robotic bird named Robo Raven was developed in the Advanced Manufacturing Lab at the University of Maryland [26–28] and was used as the base platform for this research. Like most FWAVs Robo Raven has a limited flight time due to the small on-board lithium polymer battery used to power all of its components. With the limited flight time and large surface area provided by the wings, it’s a perfect candidate for solar cell integration. The new wing designs do not only provide the lift and thrust forces necessary for flight but also provide electrical power making them multifunctional. This new functionality increases vehicle endurance and overall system efficiency. Multi-functional structures combine multiple functional requirements into a single structural component to create better efficiency in the overall design [29, 30]. A Micro Air Vehicle (MAV) constructed with MEMS technology has a membrane made of a PVDF skin, allowing it to act as a real time load sensor to directly analyze flight performance [13, 14]. Ma et al. developed another MEMS-based insect-inspired flapping wing platform known as RoboBee uses artificial muscles to achieve novel controlled flight dynamics [31]. Thomas et al. described the combination of structure and battery in the design of an electric-propelled UAV as an example of a multi-functional material system [30, 32]. More recently at the A. Perez-Rosado • S.K. Gupta • H.A. Bruck (*) Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA e-mail: bruck@umd.edu #The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2016 C. Ralph et al. (eds.), Mechanics of Composite and Multi-functional Materials, Volume 7, Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-21762-8_1 1
University of Maryland, elastomeric strain gauges were placed on the wings of a flapping wing Micro Air Vehicle (MAV) [33]. These sensors captured deformations caused by flapping. The outputs from these sensors were directly correlated to thrust production which essentially made the wing into a skin-like structure. By integrating solar cells into the wings, the functionality of the wings increases improving the design of the wings. However, if this increase in functionality does not allow the vehicle to fly, the integration of solar cells would be pointless. Being able to understand not only how the performance changes but why is important. In this investigation, we report the effects of integrating solar cells into compliant wings for robotic birds. The aerodynamic forces generated by the wing are characterized on a six DOF in a wind tunnel. The wing deformations are characterized using 3D Digital Image Correlation (DIC). The mechanics of various configurations of solar cells on wing designs are investigated, as well as their energy harvesting capability. 1.2 Wing Designs The platform used to test all of these wings was the original Robo Raven design. Robo Raven weighs 289 g and has a wingspan of 114.3 cm. Unlike typical ornithopter that use a single motor to actuate both wings, Robo Raven uses two separate motors to actuate each wing separate. This allows the FWAV to perform aerobatic maneuvers other ornithopter cannot execute. Using two motors allows for varying flapping frequencies, flapping ranges, and flapping profiles to be explored. The wing was adapted from a previous design developed in Advanced Manufacturing Lab for a smaller FWAV [23–26]. This wing design has proven to be effective in generating lift and thrust forces across various size scales. The wing is mostly comprised of a carbon fiber skeleton made up of four different rods all held together by a Mylar membrane. The wing design can be seen in Fig. 1.1. The parameters of the wing are as follows: S is the semi-span, C is the chord, and tn are the diameters of carbon fiber stiffening rods. Figure 1.1 also presents the values for these parameters for the typical Robo Raven wing. The Mylar membrane is 0.025 mm thick and provides the wing with its shape, flexibility, and toughness while remaining lightweight. Figure 1.2 shows the actual completed wing with the spars highlighted. The red spar is the leading spar and is directly driven by the motor. The passive deformation of the wing through the flapping cycle allow for the aerodynamic forces to be generated. The passive deformation of the wings is crucial to endurance, speed, maneuverability, climbing, gliding and other behaviors. Making alterations to wing design will somehow affect these capabilities of the vehicle. With that in mind, if solar cells are to be integrated to the wing structure, they should be as light as possible and flexible. The solar modules choden for integration were Powerfilm’s#MPT6-75 flexible solar cell modules. These flexible 7.3 11.4 cm solar cells are reported by the manufacturer to produce 50 mA of current at 6 V. However, these commercial modules came with an encapsulation that was too thick and stiffened the cells. By removing the encapsulation, the solar modules were thinner and less stiff, making them more compatible with the Mylar membrane. For the first solar cell wing design, six modules were soldered Parameter Value Units S 605.8 Mm C 362.0 Mm t1 3.18 Mm t2 1.63 Mm t3 1.63 Mm t4 1.63 Mm θ1 0.358 Rad θ2 0.750 rad Fig. 1.1 Schematic of original Robo Raven wing design 2 A. Perez-Rosado et al.
together to one panel for each wing. Each panel was integrated to the front most portion of the wing by cutting out a portion of the Myar and adhering the solar panel in its place. The FWAV would consist of 12 modules adding 20.2 g to the vehicle. This is a 60 % increase in mass for the wing; however, the wing can also produce 3.6 W (Fig. 1.3). Once the 12 cell FWAV was completed, a flight test was conducted to determine if the vehicle would fly despite the changes that were made. The FWAV was able to sustain flight and climb, making the solar cell integration a success. To test the limits of solar cell integration, more solar modules were integrated to the wings. A second row of five modules was integrated just blow the first row. To achieve flight the wing had to be slightly modified to allow for more deformation to the wing. An additional section of Mylar at the trailing edge of the wing added the necessary compliance to achieve flight for the 22 module FWAV. The completed 11 module wing can be compared to the six module wing in Fig. 1.4. There are three main Fig. 1.2 Original fabricated Robo Raven wing Fig. 1.3 (Left) Completed Robo Raven III design. (Right) Robo Raven III in flight (see Youtube videos at: https://www.youtube.com/watch? v ¼t1_mPe8Y0V4 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v¼a8x8P5F3qTI) Fig. 1.4 11 module wing compared to the six cell wing 1 Mechanics of Multifunctional Wings with Solar Cells for Robotic Birds 3
differences between the new design and the previous. The first two involve extending carbon fiber tubes in the inside part of the wings to permit increase in wing area and compliance of the wing at the trailing edge. This was achieved by extending the tube closest to the front of the wing (t2) 3.81 cm and extending the lower tube (t3) 5.72 cm. The final modification involved changing the shape of the Mylar skin into a “teardrop”. 1.3 Measurement of Lift and Residual Thrust Forces To determine the change in performance caused by the integration of solar cells, the aerodynamic loads were directly measured in a wind tunnel. A new test stand was developed using a six DOF load cell that enables the lift and thrust forces to be measured simultaneously (Fig. 1.5). This test stand was comprised of an ATI Mini40 six degree of freedom transducer mounted on a wood/Delrin frame. The frame was built to hold the force transducer completely horizontal to the ground. This enabled the forces generated vertically to be collected as pure aerodynamic lift and the forces generated in the forward direction to be residual aerodynamic thrust. The test stand also allowed the UAV to be set to any angle of attack from 0 to 20 . Since the FWAV maintains flight at a 20 pitch, all load cell testing was done at 20 . An aluminum block is bolted to the frame to provide a smooth flat surface on which the load transducer is mounted. This six degree of freedom load cell is capable of measuring up to 40N of force with a resolution of 0.01N in the thrust direction and 120N of force with a resolution of 0.02N in the lift direction. The signal from the Mini40 is sent directly to a National Instruments PXI Data Acquisition Box. The raw signal is saved in National Instrument’s Signal Express software. The data is then exported to Microsoft Excel for post-processing. The FWAV was attached to the test stand and the test stand was placed inside of the wind tunnel. The wind tunnel was activated and the FWAV was flapped at 4 Hz with angular range of 60 . The actual lift and thrust data collected for each wing design can be seen in Fig. 1.6. These profiles were consistent with previous measurements and models of flapping wings for different compliant wing designs where the lift produces a sinusoidal profile consistent with aerodynamic drag while the residual thrust exhibits a double peak [34–36]. The peaks are out of phase which is expected with FWAVs. Because the solar cells stiffen the wings and reduce compliance in sections of the wing structure, it was predicted that the solar cell wings would underperform the regular wings. However, from the profiles it seems that the six module wings actually have slightly larger values for lift compared to the regular wings. The 11 module design had an increase in force generation compared to the original wings. The average values of lift and residual thrust load were found for each trial and can be seen in Table 1.1. Ideally the residual thrust should average out to 0 g. The wind tunnel used creates a maximum velocity of 6 m/s. The actual flight velocity is 6.7 m/s. The actual payload was found experimentally to determine what the actual lift values were. The payload capacity for Robo Raven during steady-state flight was measured to be 40 g, from which the scaling factor was calculated to be 1.4 . The corrected forces were determined and are shown in Table 1.2. Fig. 1.5 Test stand with six DOF load cell 4 A. Perez-Rosado et al.
1.4 Measurement of Deformation and Strain on Wing Surface Digital Image Correlation (DIC) allows the surface of a body undergoing some deformation to be tracked, observed, and measured. DIC uses digital cameras to track many points on a speckled image and observe the displacement of these point in relationship to each other. Using 3D DIC on the wings allows the deformation of that wing to be observed over many flapping cycles. From these deformations, several strains can be calculated for each wing. This will help explain how the addition of solar cells affects the compliance of the wing. Fig. 1.6 Time resolved load cell results for the three wing designs Table 1.1 Lift and Residual Thrust loads generated by each wing design Regular wings 12 Module FWAV 22 Module FWAV Residual Thrust (g) Lift (g) Residual Thrust (g) Lift (g) Residual Thrust (g) Lift (g) Trial 1 111 208 111 201 81 247 Trial 2 100 208 99 206 74 229 Trial 3 111 207 93 230 82 268 Averages 107 208 101 212 79 248 Table 1.2 Weight and payload of each FWAV design RoboRaven 12 Module Robo Raven III 22 Module Robo Raven III Weight of UAV (g) 290 317 346 Force Magnitude (g) 234 235 260.1 Total Flight Weight (g) 330 332 367 Payload (g) 40 15 21 1 Mechanics of Multifunctional Wings with Solar Cells for Robotic Birds 5
3D Digital Image Correlation (DIC) using VIC-3D from Correlated Solutions (Columbia, SC) was employed during the wind tunnel testing. For our experiments, two Flea3 FL3-FW-03S1M cameras were used to acquire the high speed images for processing. The wings were recorded flapping at 80 fps allowing 20 images to be taken per flapping cycle at standard flapping frequency of 4 Hz used to achieve flight. The 3D data from each wing gives a better understanding of the differences in the lift and thrust loads acting on the wings. Representative data can be seen in Fig. 1.7. This shows the out of plane displacement (W) for each wing midway through the flapping cycle. A comparison was made between the time-resolved resolved thrust and aerodynamic lift loads and the average shear strain and biaxial strain respectively of the wing. It was observed that lift force correlated very well with the biaxial strain (Fig. 1.8) where the thrust force correlated with the change in shear (Fig. 1.9) throughout the flapping cycle. As expected, the Fig. 1.7 Out of plane displacement (W) for each wing flapping downwards at the horizontal position: (left) regular wing, (middle) 6 module wing, (right) 11 module wing Fig. 1.8 Comparison of time resolved residual thrust and shear strain 6 A. Perez-Rosado et al.
integration of solar cells increased the stiffness of the wings since the solar cells are stiffer than the Mylar. This in turn reduces the amount of lift and thrust that can be generated; however, adding a larger are for compliance increases the deformation and can allow for these forces to be recovered. As the majority of the wing becomes covered in solar cells, the deformation of the wing decreases. By observing the time resolved results from the 6 module wings, it is clear that the shear strain decreases as solar cells are added. By increasing the wing size and allowing for more deformation, a large increase in shear strain in the modified 11 module wing is observed. These results are also mirrored in the cyclic results. The shear strain for the six module wing have a much lower value than the regular wings. However, the modified 11 module wings have a much higher shear strain value. This increase in deformation is what allows the 22 module FWAV to maintain flight. The increase stiffness and weight of the solar cells is counteracted by the increase in overall wing deformation. 1.5 Sensing Using Solar Cells An unexpected multifunctional aspect with the new wings was the new sensing capabilities. In observing the power production of the new solar celled wings, we observed the waveforms produced by the wings. Using a National Instrument’s USB-6009 Data Acquisition card, the voltage and current were simultaneously collected while flapping in sunlight. Multiplying these two signals together, the power produced by each wing design was found. The 22 module FWAV produced on average 7.42 W while the 12 module FWAV produced 4.10 W. By observing the percent change in power output, a double peak wave form was observed. This was similar to the thrust wave form observed from the load cell results. When the two signals were measured at the same time, the signals peaked in 800 600 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.03 0.01 –0.01 –0.03 –0.05 400 200 –200 –400 0.5 0.75 1 1.25 1.5 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 0 800 600 400 200 –200 –400 0 800 0.09 0.07 0.05 0.03 0.01 –0.01 –0.03 –0.05 0.09 0.07 0.05 0.03 0.01 –0.01 –0.03 –0.05 600 400 200 –200 –400 0 Time (sec) Time (sec) Time (sec) Lift biaxial strain Lift biaxial strain Lift biaxial strain Aerodynamic Lift (g) Aerodynamic Lift (g) Aerodynamic Lift (g) e b - e b,mean e b - e b,mean e b - e b,mean Fig. 1.9 Comparison of time resolved lift and biaxial strain relative to mean shear strain: (top left) regular wing, (top right) six module wing, (bottom) 11 module wing 1 Mechanics of Multifunctional Wings with Solar Cells for Robotic Birds 7
the same locations. This showed that the solar cells may be used to sense changes in thrust production. This change can be used to help with autonomous flight since the robot would be able to respond to changes quicker than the operator. The mechanics associated with thrust generation have been previously associated with shear strains due to torsional deformations. However, for energy harvesting using solar cells, the primary effect of torsional deformations will be to affect the incidence of light upon the solar cell due to deviations in the angle of the normal vector for the wing. An advantage of using 3D DIC is the ability to directly determine the deviation of the normal vector across the wing. Therefore, the average angular deviations in the normal vector across the wing were compared to the percent change in power output from the solar cells for the 22 module FWAV (Fig. 1.11). It was observed that there was a similar correlation as observed with the thrust in Fig. 1.10. This provided additional confirmation of the relation of the power production of the solar cells to the deformation of the wings that may be used for sensing. 1.6 Conclusions This paper investigates the effects of integrating flexible solar cells into the compliant wings of a robotic bird. The mechanics of the inherently change due to the increase in stiffness caused by the stiffer solar cells replacing the lightweight Mylar membrane. Adding solar cells makes these wings multifunctional and allows the wings to produce aerodynamic forces, produce electrical power, and sense changes in thrust during the flapping cycle. Adding solar cells makes the wings less complaint. Adding complainant sections to the wings allows for the forces to be recovered. 12 module and 22 module wings were constructed flown and tested. Load cell tests were conducted to show the Fig. 1.11 Percent change in power output versus thrust (left) 22 module FWAV (right) 12 module FWAV Fig. 1.10 Percent change in power output versus angular deviation in the wing normal vector for the 22 module FWAV 8 A. Perez-Rosado et al.
aerodynamic forces being produced by the wings. The increase in mass from the solar cells was still overcome by the amount of lift produced by the FWAVs. To understand the change in deformation, 3D DIC was used to dynamically measure the full-field deformations of the wings during flapping. Using the 3D DIC strain measurements, a correlation between the thrust force produced and the shear strain on the surface of the wings was determined. Similarly, a correlation between lift and biaxial strain was also determined. The power output from the solar cells also correlated to the thrust force produced, as well as the angular deviation in the normal vector of the deformed wing determined using 3D DIC. Thus, these multifunctional wings are also capable of sensing changes in wing deformations and associated aerodynamic forces in real time. The platform produced by this work was named Robo Raven III, and was the first flying robot bird capable of harvesting solar energy harvesting during flight for power. Acknowledgments This research has been supported by Dr. Byung-Lip “Les” Lee at AFOSR through grant FA95501210158. Opinions expressed in this paper are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect opinions of the sponsors. References 1. Gerdes, J.W., Gupta, S.K., Wilkerson, S.: A review of bird-inspired flapping wing miniature air vehicle designs. ASME J. Mech. Robot. 4 (2), 021003.1-021003.11(2012) 2. Kumar, V., Michael, N.: Opportunities and challenges with autonomous micro aerial vehicles. Int. J. Robot. Res.31(11), 1279-1291 (2012) 3. Pines, D.J., Bohorquez, F.: Challenges facing future micro-air-vehicle development. J. Aircr. 43(2), 290–305 (2006) 4. Sane, S.P., Dickinson, M.H.: The aerodynamic effects of wing rotation and a revised quasi-steady model of flapping flight. J. Exp. 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Chapter 2 Optimization of Magnetic and Electrical Properties of New Aluminium Matrix Composite Reinforced with Magnetic Nano Iron Oxide (Fe3O4) L.-M.-P. Ferreira, E. Bayraktar, M.-H. Robert, and I. Miskioglu Abstract The utility of new permanent magnetic materials and their continual improvement became an attractive area for the academic and industrial partners. In the modern technology, there is no scene of permanent magnet applications decaying in near future. Naturally, there are optimistic prospects for innovative applications, especially if the properties of costeffective magnetic pieces can be manufactured to new requirements such as corrosive and wear stability and/or high temperature applications, etc. Today, permanent magnets are unique in their capability to deliver magnetic flux into the air gap of a magnetic circuit without any continuous expenditure of energy. Aluminium matrix composite materials are used in aeronautical, aerospace, defence and automotive applications especially in the thermal management areas. Aluminium Matrix Composites (AMCs) reinforced with Nano Iron Oxide (Fe3O4) exhibit good physical and mechanical behaviour (electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability), which makes it an excellent multifunctional lightweight material. In the frame of this present work, low cost-effective permanent magnetic composites are proposed by using Aluminium Matrix Composites (AMCs) reinforced basically with Nano Iron Oxide (Fe3O4) and also addition of other reinforcement alloying elements such Nickel Oxide (NiO) have stabilized the structure. As for magnetic iron oxide, it is very easy to produce as nanoscale particles that were presented in the former papers. Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4) with a lattice parameter 0.8397 nm are very adaptable for new electromagnetic applications. Cost reduction can be obtained by reducing the total raw material cost as well as more efficient manufacturing and assembly. Electromagnetic applications such as electric motors, fast switching actuators or inductor cores for power electronics. As well-known pulse transformers (e.g. ignition systems) operate in high and transient magnetic fields. High resistivity products have specifically been developed to maintain low eddy-current losses in large cross-sections. Owing to the good magnetic and electrical properties, magnetite iron oxide (Fe3O4) is one of the favored and paramount characterized filler materials. The present paper is based on low cost manufacturing of light and efficient materials for aeronautical and automotive applications by creating these new type of composites based on aluminium matrix (AMCs) reinforced with Magnetic Nano Iron Oxide. Keywords Aluminium matrix composites • Magnetic oxide • Electrical conductivity • Magnetic permeability 2.1 Introduction The utility of new permanent magnetic materials and their continual improvement became an attractive area for the academic and industrial partners. In the modern technology, there is no scene of permanent magnet applications decaying in near future [1–3]. Naturally, there are optimistic prospects for innovative applications, especially if the properties of cost-effective magnetic pieces can be manufactured to new requirements such as corrosive and wear stability and/or high temperature applications, etc. Today, permanent magnets are unique in their capability to deliver magnetic flux into the air gap of a magnetic circuit without any continuous expenditure of energy [4–11]. L.-M.-P. Ferreira • M.-H. Robert Mechanical Engineering Faculty, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil E. Bayraktar (*) Mechanical Engineering Faculty, University of Campinas, UNICAMP, Campinas, Brazil Supmeca – Paris, School of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Saint-Ouen, France e-mail: bayraktar@supmeca.fr I. Miskioglu ME-EM Department, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, USA #The Society for Experimental Mechanics, Inc. 2016 C. Ralph et al. (eds.), Mechanics of Composite and Multi-functional Materials, Volume 7, Conference Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Mechanics Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-21762-8_2 11
In the frame of this present work, low cost-effective permanent magnetic composites are proposed by using Aluminium Matrix Composites (AMCs) reinforced with Nano Iron Oxide (Fe3O4) that has good electrical conductivity and magnetic permeability. As for magnetic iron oxide, it is very easy to produce as nanoscale particles that were presented in the former papers [3]. Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4) with a lattice parameter 0.8397 nm are very adaptable for new electromagnetic applications. Cost reduction can be obtained by reducing the total raw material cost as well as more efficient manufacturing and assembly. Electromagnetic applications such as electric motors, fast switching actuators or inductor cores for power electronics. As well-known pulse transformers (e.g. ignition systems) operate in high and transient magnetic fields. High resistivity products have specifically been developed to maintain low eddy-current losses in large cross-sections [9–17]. Owing to the good magnetic and electrical properties, magnetite (Fe3O4) is one of the favored and paramount characterized filler materials. The present paper is based on low cost manufacturing of light and efficient materials for aeronautical applications by creating the composites based on aluminium matrix (AMCs) reinforced with Magnetic Nano Iron Oxide. 2.2 Experimental Conditions The preparation of Fe3O4 magnetic nano-particles was exclusively adapted from our simple low-cost method that was carried out at the chemical processing laboratory in Paris [1–3]. Low Cost Manufacturing of the Composite Samples. A simple tubular ceramic oven was used to prepare sintering as an effective method. The compact geometry was prepared from aluminium and iron oxide (Fe3O4) powders. Aluminium with a purity of 99.7 % was used as the base material (Merck Co, France) with a grain size of <2μm. The purity level of Fe3O4 was found to be 99.62 %. Distributions of the particle size are variable (45–70 nm). The mixtures were blended homogeneously in ball milling (4000–6000 rpm) during 2 h. These Al matrix composites have given higher mechanical properties and homogeneous microstructure as indicated in the former reports [1, 2]. Then, blended powders were compacted by cold isostatic pressing (CIP) with a green compact pressure of 250 MPa, intending to produce an initial green density ranging from 85 % to 95 %. The aspect ratio of this geometry was 0.85. Sintering conditions were carried out under argon atmosphere to prevent the oxidation during the sintering. Sintering temperature was fixed for all the specimens as 600 C in ceramic tubular oven. Three basic compositions were prepared for this present work. They are called AF-10A, AF-20A and AF-30A, respectively depending on the increasing amount of the magnetic nano iron oxide. All of the compositions contain 2 % Nickel powder and only one composition (AF20A) is compared regarding to two different nickel percentages (2 % and 4 %); they are called AF20A-2 and AF-20A-4 respectively. All of the measurements of the density and porosity of the specimens were carried out by pycnometer (digital density meters, Webb and Orr, 1997 work with helium gas) before and after sintering and the results were then compared. Measurements of magnetic properties essentially magnetization and hysteresis loop of the specimens were performed at room temperature using a special type commercial GMW vibrating sample magnetometer VSM 3474-140. This supplies the coercive force, remanence, saturation magnetization, etc. and also gives information about the magnetization process. Microstructures of the composites processed here were observed by using Optical (OM) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (JOEL-SEM) adapted with EDS and XRD (X-Ray-Diffraction) Analyses. 2.3 Results and Discussion Microstructural Evaluation. Magnetic iron oxide powder obtained by chemical process and interface with Al matrix in different percentage, it means that depending on the magnetic nano iron oxide is given in the Fig. 2.1 as AF-10, AF-20 and AF-30 indicated as increasing amount of iron oxide, respectively. In general way, the process of these composites should be doped with certain elements before making mixture. Here, doping of iron oxide with certain elements at the first stage of alloying aluminium resulted in a more homogenous composite. Mixture and fusion of the iron oxide and aluminium after 2 h and microstructures of the three composites were indicated in the Fig. 2.2. In reality homogenous distribution is related to the well-mixture of the composite powders. Even if there is a homogenous distribution of iron oxide in the matrix, it is worth to mix carefully due to fast heating of the powder (pure aluminium and Fe3O4). In the three compositions designed here, one may observe that iron oxide was dispersed homogeneously and continuously in the aluminium matrix, mainly around the grain boundaries of aluminium (Fig. 2.3). Also addition of zinc 12 L.-M.-P. Ferreira et al.
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